Mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure provides ex vivo-derived mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs. The bone constructs are obtained by culturing osteoblasts and osteoclast precursors under randomized gravity vector conditions. Preferably, the randomized gravity vector conditions are obtained using a low shear stress rotating bioreactor, such as a High Aspect Ratio Vessel (HARV) culture system. The bone constructs of the disclosure have utility in physiological studies of bone formation and bone function, in drug discovery, and in orthopedics.

This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/693,662 filed Mar. 29, 2007, which in turn claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/787,431, filed Mar. 30, 2006,each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The U.S. Government has a paid-up license in this invention and theright in limited circumstances to require the patent owners to licenseothers on reasonable terms as provided for by the terms of Contract No.NNJ04HF46H awarded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA).

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to ex vivo-derived mineralized three-dimensionalbone constructs which replicate natural bone.

BACKGROUND

One of the central problems associated with studying both the normal andpathophysiology of bone is that as an organ system it is slow growingand the time to show an observable response to a particular stimulus isrelatively long. The nature of the mineralized tissue matrix of bone invivo and its complex architecture also presents several technicalproblems associated with how experimental observations can be made. Atpresent, truly informative studies designed to understand bonephysiology have relied primarily on the removal of samples of bonetissue from normal or diseased tissue either in a clinical setting orfrom experimental animal models.

To date, there is no three dimensional tissue culture model of bone,either of animal or human origin. The prior art has relied primarily onthe use of monotype cell type cultures of osteoblasts or osteoclastcells grown on planar, two dimensional tissue culture surfaces. Suchcultures have also been grown in three dimensional collagen support gelsand some investigators have utilized culture systems that allow types ofmechanical strain to be applied to the cells in order to study theeffects of mechanical loading. However, these cultures have beenprimarily focused on the responses of a single cell type, such asosteoblasts, to various environmental stimuli.

Existing planar monotype tissue culture models of bone do not allow thestudy of the interactions between the different cell types present innormal bone responsible for normal bone remodeling. The developmentallyinactive osteocyte cell type present in the mineralized matrix of normalbone in vivo (from which osteoblasts are derived) have yet to be fullycharacterized in any tissue culture model due to their supposedtransformation into osteoblasts once they have been removed from thebone matrix and placed into culture.

Moreover, the process of mineralization, which is essential to theformation of new bone, has previously only been studied in monotypecultures of osteoblasts. The mineralization process has been studied insuch models in the absence of the major cell type involved in theremoval of mineralized material, namely the osteoclast. However, thecomplex interplay between both of these cell types is essential fornormal bone remodeling (i.e. bone formation and bone loss). Without bothcell types being present, a true in vitro/ex vivo representation of thenormal or indeed pathological processes involved in the bone remodelingprocess is impossible. As such, the use of such monotype culture modelsto investigate the effects of manipulations, such as anti-osteoporeticdrugs or mechanical load interventions, have limited utility due to thelack of similarity to the true physiological state existing within bonetissue in vivo.

SUMMARY

In one aspect, the disclosure provides ex vivo-derived mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs, each comprising a spheroid of betweenabout 200 μm and about 4 mm in diameter having an outer layersurrounding an inner core. The outer layer is comprised of osteoclasts,and the inner layer is comprised of osteoblasts, osteocytes, or bothosteoblasts and osteocytes embedded within a crystalline matrix. Thecrystalline matrix is comprised of calcium, phosphates, and carbonates.

In another aspect, the disclosure provides methods for producingmineralized three-dimensional bone constructs. In one embodiment, amethod comprises introducing osteoclast precursors and osteoblasts intoa culture vessel comprising a matrix-free culture medium; culturing theosteoclast precursors and the osteoblasts under randomized gravityvector conditions wherein aggregates of the osteoblasts and theosteoclast precursors are formed; and introducing a matrix-freemineralization culture medium into the culture vessel and culturing theaggregates under randomized gravity vector conditions.

In another embodiment, a method comprises culturing osteoclastprecursors and osteoblasts in a matrix-free culture medium using a lowshear rotational three-dimensional tissue culture technique underconditions effective to form aggregates comprising the osteoblasts andthe osteoclast precursors, and culturing the aggregates using said lowshear rotational three-dimensional tissue culture technique in amatrix-free mineralization culture medium that promotes mineralizationof said aggregates.

In another embodiment, a method comprises introducing osteoclastprecursors and osteoblasts into a cylindrical culture vessel thatrotates about a substantially central horizontal axis, the cylindricalculture vessel comprising a matrix-free culture medium; culturing theosteoblasts and the osteoclast precursors in the cylindrical culturevessel during substantially horizontal rotation at a rate effective tocreate low shear conditions and to promote the formation of aggregatescomprising the osteoclast precursors and said osteoblasts; andintroducing a matrix-free mineralization culture medium into thecylindrical culture vessel and culturing the aggregates duringsubstantially horizontal rotation at a rate effective to create lowshear conditions.

In another embodiment, the method comprises introducing osteoclastprecursors and osteoblasts into a cylindrical culture vessel thatrotates about a substantially central horizontal axis, the cylindricalculture vessel comprising a matrix-free culture medium; culturing theosteoblasts and the osteoclast precursors in the cylindrical culturevessel during substantially horizontal rotation at a rate effective tocreate low shear conditions and to promote the formation of aggregatescomprising the osteoclast precursors and said osteoblasts; furtherculturing the aggregates in the cylindrical culture vessel duringsubstantially horizontal rotation at a rate effective to create lowshear conditions so that the aggregates grow in size and the osteoclastprecursors differentiate into osteoclasts; and introducing a matrix-freemineralization culture medium into the cylindrical culture vessel andculturing the aggregates during substantially horizontal rotation at arate effective to create low shear conditions, wherein the mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs are formed.

In another aspect, the disclosure provides a mineralizedthree-dimensional bone construct produced by introducing osteoclastprecursors and osteoblasts into a cylindrical culture vessel thatrotates about a substantially central horizontal axis, the cylindricalculture vessel comprising a matrix-free culture medium; culturing theosteoblasts and the osteoclast precursors in the cylindrical culturevessel during substantially horizontal rotation at a rate effective tocreate low shear conditions and to promote the formation of aggregatescomprising the osteoclast precursors and said osteoblasts; furtherculturing the aggregates in the cylindrical culture vessel duringsubstantially horizontal rotation at a rate effective to create lowshear conditions so that the aggregates grow in size and the osteoclastprecursors differentiate into osteoclasts; and introducing a matrix-freemineralization culture medium into the cylindrical culture vessel andculturing the aggregates during substantially horizontal rotation at arate effective to create low shear conditions, wherein the mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs are formed.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a flowchart of an example of a method for preparingmineralized three-dimensional bone constructs.

FIGS. 2A-2B present images of mineralized three-dimensional boneconstructs at 14 days of mineralization (FIG. 2A) and 21 days ofmineralization (FIG. 2B). The scale bars each represent 1 cm.

FIGS. 3A-3B present images of mineralized three-dimensional boneconstructs. FIG. 3A presents a fluorescence confocal microscopy image ofan optical section through bone constructs in which the osteoclastprecursor cells were labeled with a fluorescent cell tracking dye(observable as white spots in FIG. 3A). FIG. 3B shows the sameconstructs viewed in incident laser light (i.e. non-fluorescentillumination) to illustrate the shape of the constructs. The scale barin each of FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B is 200 μm.

FIG. 4 presents a three dimensional reconstruction of a large boneconstruct using Z series confocal imaging. Osteoclast precursors werelabeled with a fluorescent cell tracking dye. Panels A-I in FIG. 4 arethe individual images used by the confocal imaging software to build theoptical reconstruction of the bone construct in three dimensions, eachimage representing a sequential view over the surface of the construct(white spots indicate individual cells).

FIGS. 5A-5D show Alizarin red S staining and von Kossa staining ofsections through a bone construct. FIG. 5A shows a 5× magnificationimage of Alizarin red S staining and FIG. 5B shows a 20× magnificationimage of Alizarin red S staining (which appears as the dark regions ofthe images). FIG. 5C shows a 5× magnification image of von Kossastaining and FIG. 5B shows a 20× magnification image of von Kossastaining (which appears as the dark regions of the images).

FIGS. 6A-6B show Harris Hematoxylin staining of sections through a boneconstruct. FIG. 6A is a 5× magnification image and FIG. 6B is a 20×magnification image. The dark regions of the image indicate stainingArrows in FIG. 6B point to large numbers of cells embedded within thecrystalline matrix in the three dimensional construct.

FIGS. 7A-7C show images of bone construct in which osteoclast precursorswere labeled with a fluorescent cell tracking dye prior to formation ofthe bone construct, and the bone construct was stained with a primaryantibody against osteocalcein (a marker of osteoclast differentiation)and an Alexa 488-labeled secondary antibody. FIG. 7A shows osteocalceinstaining, FIG. 7B shows CellTracker-Orange staining, and FIG. 7C showsthe same construct illuminated with incident laser light. The resultsindicate that osteocalcein staining and cell tracking dye (both visibleas a white “ring” around the construct in FIGS. 7A and 7B) are spatiallylocalized to the same area of the construct.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs (sometimes referred to herein simplyas “bone constructs”). The mineralized three dimensional constructs ofthe disclosure are “bone like” in appearance by visual inspection, incertain important respects resembling trabecular bone (also known in theart as “spongy bone”). In preferred embodiments, the mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs of the disclosure are macroscopic insize and are approximately spheroidal in shape, preferably between about200 μm and about 4 mm in diameter; however, larger and smaller boneconstructs are specifically contemplated.

The bone constructs comprise an inner core surrounded by an outer layer.The inner core comprises a three-dimensional crystalline matrix thatstains positively with Alizarin Red S stain and with the von Kossahistochemical stain, indicating that it comprises mineral elementsobserved in normal human bone in vivo, including calcium, phosphates,and carbonates. The inner core also comprises osteoblasts and/orosteocytes embedded within the crystalline matrix, and is preferablydevoid of necrotic tissue. Osteocytes are developmentally inactive cellsfound only in native bone tissue in vivo and are believed to be formedfrom osteoblasts that have become trapped in the crystalline matrix. Theouter layer is comprised of osteoclasts, which may express thedifferentiation marker osteocalcein. The cell types in the boneconstructs of the disclosure can be obtained from any mammalian species,but are preferably obtained from humans.

In another aspect, the disclosure provides methods for producing themineralized three-dimensional bone constructs. In general, the boneconstructs of the disclosure are produced by culturing osteoclastprecursors and osteoblasts together under randomized gravity vectorconditions (approaching those conditions that cultured cells experienceduring microgravity culture) in a matrix-free culture medium. Osteoclastprecursors may be obtained from bone marrow and/or peripheral bloodlymphocytes by techniques well known in the art. Osteoclast precursorsmay also be obtained from commercial sources (for example, fromCambrex/Lonza, Inc.). Osteoblasts, preferably primary human osteoblasts,may also be obtained by techniques well known in the art, and may alsobe obtained from commercial sources (for example, from PromoCell, Inc.and from Cambrex/Lonza, Inc.). A “matrix-free culture medium” is a cellculture medium which does not include carrier material (such asmicrocarrier beads or collagen gels) onto which osteoblasts andosteoclast precursors can attach. Suitable cell culture media includeEagle's Minimal Essential Medium (EMEM) or Dulbecco's Modified Eagle'sMedium (DMEM), preferably supplemented with fetal bovine serum (FBS).Preferably, the matrix-free culture medium also comprises osteoblastgrowth supplements such as ascorbic acid. The matrix-free culture mediumpreferably also further comprises osteoclast differentiation factors,such as Receptor Activator of NF-kB (RANK) ligand and macrophage colonystimulating factor (M-CSF). For example, in one embodiment thematrix-free culture medium comprises FBS-supplemented DMEM, ascorbicacid, RANK ligand, and M-CSF. Example 2 includes a description of onesuitable matrix-free culture medium.

The osteoclast precursors and the osteoblasts are cultured togetherunder randomized gravity vector conditions effective to achieve theformation of mixed aggregates of the two cell types. The aggregates arethen further cultured under randomized gravity vector conditions toincrease the aggregates size and to differentiate the osteoclastprecursors into mature osteoclasts.

After a predetermined time, the aggregates are cultured under randomizedgravity vector conditions in a matrix-free mineralization culturemedium. A “matrix-free mineralization culture medium” is a cell culturemedium that includes one or more mineralization agents, such asosteoblast differentiation factors, that induce osteoblasts to producecrystalline deposits (comprising calcium, phosphate, and carbonates) butwhich does not include carrier material (such as microcarrier beads andcollagen gels) onto which osteoblasts and osteoclast precursors canattach. For example, in one embodiment, a matrix-free mineralizationculture medium comprises FBS-supplemented EMEM or DMEM, supplementedwith the osteoblast differentiation factors. Osteoblast differentiationfactors include beta-glycerophosphate andhydrocortisone-21-hemisuccinate. Preferably, the matrix-freemineralization culture medium also includes osteoclast differentiationfactors such as RANK ligand and M-CSF, and also includes osteoblastgrowth supplements such as ascorbic acid. For example, in one embodimentthe matrix-free mineralization culture medium comprises FBS-supplementedDMEM, beta-glycerophosphate, ascorbic acid,hydrocortisone-21-hemisuccinate, RANK ligand and M-CSF. Example 2includes a description of one suitable matrix-free mineralizationmedium.

In preferred embodiments, randomized gravity vector conditions areobtained by culturing osteoclast precursors and osteoblasts in a lowshear stress rotating bioreactor. Such bioreactors were initiallydesigned to mimic some of the physical conditions experienced by cellscultured in true microgravity during space flight. In general, a lowshear stress rotating bioreactor comprises a cylindrical culture vessel.One or more ports are operatively associated with the lumen of thevessel for the introduction and removal of cells and culture media. Thecylindrical culture vessel is completely filled with a culture medium toeliminate head space. The cylindrical culture vessel rotates about asubstantially central horizontal axis. The resulting substantiallyhorizontal rotation occurs at a rate chosen so that (1) there isessentially no relative motion between the walls of the vessel and theculture medium; and (2) cells remain in suspension within a determinedspatial region of the vessel such that they experience a continuous“free fall” through the culture medium at terminal velocity with lowshear stress and low turbulence. This free fall state may be maintainedcontinuously for up to several months in some applications described inthe prior art. The continuous orbital movement of the medium relative tothe cells also allows for highly efficient transfer of gases andnutrients.

In some embodiments, the diameter of the cylindrical culture vessel issubstantially greater than its height. Such cylindrical culture vesselsare often referred to in the art as High Aspect Ratio Vessels (HARVs).For example, a HARV having a volume of 10 mL may have a diameter ofabout 10 cm and a height of about 1 cm. At least a portion of the vesselwalls may be comprised of a gas permeable membrane to allow gas exchangebetween the culture medium and the surrounding incubator environment. Asuitable HARV is described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,437,998,incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. One commercialembodiment of a HARV is the Rotating Cell Culture System (RCCS)available from Synthecon, Inc.

In some embodiments, the diameter of the cylindrical culture vessel issubstantially smaller than its height. Such cylindrical culture vesselsare often referred to in the art as Slow Turning Lateral Vessels(STLVs). STLVs typically have a core, comprised of a gas permeablemembrane, running through the center of the cylinder in order to allowgas exchange between the culture medium and the surrounding incubatorenvironment. STLVs are available from Synthecon, Inc.

The use of low shear stressing rotating bioreactor culture systems isdescribed in, for example, Nickerson et al., Immunity. 69:7106-7120(2001); Carterson et al., Infection & Immunity. 73(2):1129-40 (2005);and in Goodwin et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,496,722, each of which isspecifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In one embodiment, osteoclast precursors and osteoblasts are introducedinto a cylindrical culture vessel in matrix-free culture medium. Theosteoclast precursors and the osteoblasts may be introduced into thecylindrical culture vessel separately, or they may be introduced intothe cylindrical culture vessel as a pre-mixture of the two cell types.Preferably, the cells are introduced into the cylindrical culture vesselat a osteoblast:osteoclast precursor ratio of from about 2:1 to about3:1, although higher and lower ratios are within the scope of thedisclosure. The absolute number of cells introduced into the cylindricalculture vessel may also be varied. For example, in some embodimentswhere a ratio of about 2:1 is employed, about 2 million osteoblasts andabout 1 million osteoclast precursors are introduced; in otherembodiments about 4 million osteoblasts and about 2 million osteoclastprecursors are introduced; and in still further embodiments about 8million osteoblasts and about 4 million osteoclast precursors areintroduced. The ratio of osteoblasts:osteoclast precursors and theabsolute number of cells can be varied in order to vary the size and thenumber of aggregates formed. In addition, other cell types may also beintroduced into the cylindrical culture vessel. For example, bone marrowstroma and stem cells may be cultured along with the osteoblasts and theosteoclast precursors.

One or more cell types may optionally be labeled with a cell-trackingmarker, such as a fluorescent cell-tracking dye, prior to theirintroduction into the cylindrical culture vessel. In this way, it ispossible to determine the location of the individual cell types during,or at the conclusion of, the formation of the bone constructs. Forexample, fluorescent CellTracker dyes, available from Invitrogen, Inc.,may be used in conjunction with fluorescence microscopy techniques, suchas confocal fluorescence microscopy. If more than one cell type islabeled, then they are labeled with different colored dyes so that eachcell type can be tracked independently.

Cells are then cultured in the matrix-free culture medium in thecylindrical culture vessel during substantially horizontal rotation toform aggregates of the two cell types. The rate of substantiallyhorizontal rotation during the aggregation phase is chosen so that both(1) low shear conditions are obtained; and (2) the osteoclast precursorsand the osteoblasts are able to coalesce and form aggregates. The rateof substantially horizontal rotation may be selected by monitoring thecylindrical culture vessel and by monitoring the cells and aggregates inthe cylindrical culture vessel (for example using microscopy), to insurethat the cells and aggregates are not sedimenting (which may be causedby too low a rate of rotation) or experiencing mechanical or excessivehydrodynamic shear stress. In embodiments in which a HARV is used,osteoclast precursors and osteoblasts may form a “boundary” layersituated in the middle of the HARV during the aggregation phase.

Preferably, the rate of substantially horizontal rotation during theaggregation phase is lower than the rate typically used for culturingcells. For example, in embodiments where the cylindrical culture vesselis a 10 mL HARV having a diameter of about 10 cm and a height of about 1cm, substantially horizontal rotation at less than about 14 revolutionsper minute (rpm) may be used. More preferably, substantially horizontalrotation at less than about 12 rpm is used. In certain preferredembodiments, substantially horizontal rotation at between about 1 rpmand about 4 rpm is used. In one specific embodiment, substantiallyhorizontal rotation at about 2 rpm is used. Note that the aforementionedrpm values are provided with reference to a 10 mL HARV having theaforementioned dimensions. The rpm values will vary depending on thevolume and dimensions of the cylindrical culture vessel. The rpm valuesduring the aggregation phase for all such vessels are easily determinedusing the aforementioned methodology.

Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believedthat the use of a matrix-free culture medium allows the use of rates ofrotation that are substantially lower than previously reported in theart for culturing mammalian cells in a low shear stress rotatingbioreactor. The use of low rotation rates, in turn, is believed for thefirst time to promote efficient association of osteoclast precursors andosteoblasts into aggregates, and to promote three-dimensionalorganization of these two cell types within the aggregates. Thus, theorganization of the cell types within the aggregate is not constrainedor influenced by an exogenous carrier material, but rather by nativecell-cell interaction. Consequently, the three-dimensional organizationof the osteoblasts and osteoclasts is physiologically realistic.

The rate of substantially horizontal rotation may optionally be adjustedperiodically during the aggregation phase in order to compensate for theincrease in the sedimentation velocity (which is a function of volumeand density) of the forming aggregates, thereby maintaining theaggregates in low shear “free fall” and preventing impact with thevessel wall.

The aggregation phase proceeds for a period of time sufficient toproduce the desired size of aggregates. Aggregate formation may bemonitored during the aggregation phase by visual inspection, includingthrough the use of microscopy. It will be apparent from the disclosurethat the size of the aggregates is also dependent on the number of cellsthat are initially introduced into the cylindrical culture vessel, thelength of time allowed for aggregation, as well as the rotation rate. Inone example, the aggregation phase is allowed to proceed for betweenabout 24 hours and about 48 hours.

Once aggregates of the desired size have formed, the aggregates arepreferably further cultured in the cylindrical culture vessel duringsubstantially horizontal rotation for a period of time sufficient toallow the aggregates to grow to a desired size through cellproliferation and/or to allow the osteoclast precursors in theaggregates to differentiate into osteoclasts. For example, the furtherculturing of the aggregates may proceed for between about 5 and about 7days and may lead to grown aggregates having a diameter from betweenabout 200 μm and about 4 mm. The resultant aggregates are sometimesreferred to herein as “spheroids.” Preferably, the rate of substantiallyhorizontal rotation during the further culturing is higher than the rateduring the aggregation phase, but still provides low shear conditions inthe cylindrical culture vessel. For example, a rotation rate of betweenabout 9 rpm and about 16 rpm, preferably about 14 rpm, may be usedduring further culturing for the 10 mL HARV exemplified above. The rateof substantially horizontal rotation may optionally be adjustedperiodically during the further culturing phase in order to compensatefor the increase in the sedimentation pathway of the aggregates as theygrow in size (and hence undergo changes in volume and density), therebymaintaining the growing aggregates in low shear “free fall” andpreventing impact with the vessel wall.

Once aggregates have attained a desired size, a matrix-freemineralization culture medium is introduced into the cylindrical culturevessel and the aggregates are cultured during substantially horizontalrotation until they become mineralized, thereby forming the mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs of the disclosure. For example, themineralization process may proceed for between about 7 days and about 21days. Preferably, the rate of substantially horizontal rotation duringsuch the mineralization process is higher than the rate during theaggregation phase, but still provides low shear conditions in thecylindrical culture vessel. For example, a rotation rate of betweenabout 9 rpm and about 20 rpm, preferably about 14 rpm, may be usedduring the mineralization phase for the 10 mL HARV exemplified above.The rate of substantially horizontal rotation may optionally be adjustedperiodically during the mineralization phase in order to compensate forthe increase in the sedimentation pathway of the aggregates as theyincrease in mass, thereby maintaining the mineralizing aggregates in lowshear “free fall” and preventing impact with the vessel walls.

Mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs are harvested once theyhave achieved the desired size and mass. In cylindrical culture vesselswith one or more access ports, the bone constructs are removed through apart. When the bone constructs exceed the diameter of the port, thevessel is disassembled to remove the bone constructs.

Osteoclasts and osteoblasts act coordinately in the mineralizationprocess that occurs in vivo during bone formation and bonerestructuring. Accordingly, the mineralized three-dimensional boneconstructs of the disclosure, formed by the coordinated activity ofosteoblasts and osteoclasts, are physiologically realistic.

As described above, the mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs ofthe disclosure mimic trabecular bone in many important aspects. The boneconstructs of the disclosure therefore have a great many uses in thefields of, for example, physiology research and development,pharmaceutical research, and orthopedics. Without limitation, theseinclude the direct benefit of developing a model for studying bothnormal bone physiology and the pathological responses observed indisease states such as osteoporosis, as well as providing a highlyeconomical platform for drug development as it relates to the treatmentof bone diseases.

The bone constructs of the disclosure also can be used for autologousgrafts. Specifically, diseased or missing bone may be replaced withex-vivo-derived mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs in whichthe component osteoclasts and osteoblasts are harvested from healthybone and peripheral blood lymphocytes of the patient requiring the bonegraft. Examples of pathologies where the bone constructs of thedisclosure have therapeutic utility include fractures, non-unions offractures, congenital deformities of bone, bone infections, bone loss,segmental bone defects, bone tumors, metabolic and endocrine disordersaffecting bone, and tooth loss.

The bone constructs of the disclosure can also be used for allogenic(allograft) grafts. Specifically, diseased or missing bone can bereplaced with ex vivo-derived mineralized three-dimensional boneconstructs in which the component osteoclasts and osteoblasts areharvested from healthy bone and peripheral blood lymphocytes of anotherdonor for the benefit of a patient requiring bone graft. Examples ofpathologies where the bone constructs of the disclosure have therapeuticutility include fractures, non-unions of fractures, congenitaldeformities of bone, bone infections, bone loss, segmental bone defects,bone tumors, metabolic and endocrine disorders affecting bone, and toothloss.

Because the bone constructs of the disclosure closely resemble boneformed in vivo, it is expected that they produce unique factors and/orcytokines essential for bone remodeling. Accordingly, the boneconstructs of the disclosure serve as a source for identification andharvesting of these factors.

The bone constructs of the disclosure may also be used to study theinterface between prosthetic devices/materials and bone tissue.

Sensors or stimulation devices may be incorporated into the boneconstructs of the disclosure, and the resulting constructs implantedinto bone tissue in vivo.

The bone constructs of the disclosure also may be used in the productionof large structures of specific dimensions for “form-fitted”applications such as replacement of large regions of the skeleton. Thismay be achieved using a combination of tissue scaffolding/syntheticsupport materials embedded with numerous bone constructs to generate amuch larger composite tissue aggregate.

The bone constructs of the disclosure also provide a low costalternative in which to study the effects of microgravity, and of otherspace environment insults, such as radiation, on the process of boneformation/bone loss.

The following examples are not to be construed as limiting the scope ofthe invention disclosed herein in any way.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Flow Chart of a Method for Producing Bone Constructs

A flow chart of the method for producing mineralized three-dimensionalbone constructs is provided in FIG. 1. Osteoblast and osteoclastprecursor cells are first isolated (110) from a healthy patient and theninoculated (120) into a modified High Aspect Rotating Vessel (HARV) witha matrix-free culture medium. Cells are allowed to aggregate (130) at arotation speed (typically 2 rpm) much lower than that commonly used forthe culture of mammalian cells. Low speed promotes aggregation of thetwo or more cell types in the early stages of aggregate formation. Afterthe aggregation period is over, the rotation speed of the High AspectRotating Vessel is increased (140). This allows the bone construct togrow into spheroids (150) in a state of “free fall”. The mineralizationstep (160) is then initiated by exchanging the initial matrix-freeculture medium for a matrix-free mineralization culture medium, whichinitiates the production of a calcified crystalline matrix in the centerof the tissue aggregate. The bone constructs are then characterized. Thespatial arrangement of the different cell types is observed by confocalmicroscopy imaging (170). The cells are visualized with Z-seriesconfocal imaging (175) by pre-labeling the initial cell constituents ofthe construct with green fluorescent cell tracker probe. The presence ofcalcium, phosphate and carbonate is revealed by using Alizarin red Sstain and Kossa histochemical stain (180), while the presence ofnucleated cells embedded in the crystalline matrix is revealed bynuclear staining (185). Immuno-staining of the construct (190) showsthat cell markers such as alkaline phosphate are absent from the cellsembedded in the crystalline matrix. Finally, prelabeling of theosteoclast precursor cells with Cell Tracker-Orange (195) shows thatprecursor cells allowed to aggregate and organize under these cultureconditions express the osteoclast differentiation marker, namelyosteocalcein.

Example 2 Production of Bone Constructs in a HARV

Cryopreserved primary normal human osteoblast cells and normal humanosteoclast precursor cells were purchased from the Cambrex Corporation(East Rutherford, N.J.) and stored frozen under liquid nitrogen untilneeded.

Osteoblast cells were rapidly thawed by placing the vial in a 37° C.oven, removing the cell suspension from the vial and placing it in a 15ml centrifugation tube and then diluting the cell suspension with 10 mlof Dulbecco's Modified Essential Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10%(v/v) fetal bovine serum (10% FBS-DMEM). The cells were then collectedby centrifugation at 100×g for 5 min at 4° C. The supernatant was thenremoved and the cell pellet was resuspended by gentle tituration in 10ml of fresh 10% FBS-DMEM supplemented with 5 μM ascorbic acid and 1mg/ml GA-1000 (gentamicin/amphotericin B mixture). This process wascarried out to wash away the cryopreservatives in which the osteoblastcells had been frozen.

The resulting cell suspension was then inoculated into a T-75 tissueculture flask and incubated at 37° C. in a 5% CO₂ atmosphere tissueculture incubator for a total period of seven days, with the mediumbeing exchanged every three days. After seven days the osteoblastculture was approaching confluence and the osteoblast cells wereharvested by removing the cells from the surface of the flask usingtrypsin/EDTA digestion followed by collection of the cells bycentrifugation as above. The cell pellet was then gently resuspended in20 ml of fresh 10% FBS-DMEM supplemented with 5 μM ascorbic acid and 1mg/ml GA-1000. The resulting cell suspension was then inoculated intotwo T-75 tissue culture flasks and again cultured for an additionalseven days. This process of osteoblast cell expansion continued untilthe cells had reached passage 5 (i.e. five expansion/population doublingcycles).

When the osteoblast cells had reached Passage 5 in culture they wereharvested using trypsin/EDTA digestion followed by collection of thecells by centrifugation as above. The cell pellet was then gentlyresuspended in 10 ml of fresh 10% FBS-DMEM supplemented with 5 μMascorbic acid, 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 ug/ml streptomycin,penicillin/streptomycin being substituted for GA-1000 at this point dueto the potential negative effects of gentamicin on the capability ofosteoblast cells to produce mineralized extracellular matrix. Theresulting osteoblast cell suspension was counted using a hemacytometerto ascertain the number of osteoblast cells/ml. An aliquot of cellsuspension containing a total of six million osteoblast cells wasremoved and placed in a separate 15 ml centrifugation tube inpreparation for the addition of osteoclast precursor cells.

Osteoclast precursor cells were rapidly thawed by placing the vial in a37° C. oven, removing the cell suspension from the vial and placing itin a 15 ml centrifugation tube and then diluting the cell suspensionwith 10 ml of Dulbecco's Modified Essential Medium (DMEM) supplementedwith 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum (10% FBS-DMEM). The cells were thencollected by centrifugation at 100×g for 5 min at 4° C. The supernatantwas then removed and the cell pellet was resuspended by gentletituration in 1 ml of fresh 10% FBS-DMEM supplemented with 5 μM ascorbicacid, 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 ug/ml streptomycin. This process wascarried out to wash away the cryopreservatives in which the osteoclastcells had been frozen.

The resulting osteoclast precursor cell suspension was counted using ahemacytometer to ascertain the number of osteoclast precursor cells/ml.An aliquot of cell suspension containing a total of two millionosteoclast cells was removed and added to the 15 ml centrifuge tubecontaining the six million osteoblast cells. The volume of medium in thecentrifuge tube was then was adjusted to a total of 10 ml by theaddition of fresh 10% FBS-DMEM supplemented with 5 μM ascorbic acid, 100U/ml penicillin and 100 ug/ml streptomycin. Finally, the 10 ml of mediumcontaining both osteoblast and osteoclast cells was supplemented with 50ng/ml macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) and 50 ng/ml ofreceptor activator of NF-kB (RANK) ligand.

The resulting osteoblast/osteoclast cell suspension was then inoculatedinto a 10 ml rotating cell culture system (RCCS) flask (also know as aHigh Aspect Ratio Vessel—HARV) (Synthecon, Inc.) and horizontallyrotated at 2 RPM for a period of 24 hr to allow coalescence of theosteoblast and osteoclast cells into a solid, three dimensional tissueconstruct. After a period of 24 hr, the rotation speed of the HARV wasincreased to 14 RPM in order ensure that the tissue construct wasmaintained in an optimal position within the HARV, namely not touchingor hitting the sides of the rotating HARV rather in a state of“free-fall” within the medium contained within the rotating HARV. Thecell medium within the HARV was exchanged with 10 ml of fresh 10%FBS-DMEM supplemented with 5 μM ascorbic acid, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100ug/ml streptomycin, 50 ng/ml macrophage colony stimulating factor(M-CSF) and 50 ng/ml of receptor activator of NF-kB (RANK) ligand (amatrix-free culture medium) after every fourth day of culture.

After a period of seven days of culture in the HARV under the aboveconditions the medium was exchanged for 10 ml of fresh 10% FBS-DMEMsupplemented with 5 μM ascorbic acid, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 ug/mlstreptomycin, 50 ng/ml macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), 50ng/ml of receptor activator of NF-kB (RANK) ligand, 200 μMhydrocortisone-21-hemisuccinate and 10 mM beta-glycerophosphate (amatrix-free mineralization culture medium). Thehydrocortisone-21-hemisuccinate and beta-glycerophosphate were added tothe medium to induce mineralization of the tissue construct by theosteoblasts. The cell medium within the HARV was exchanged with 10 ml offresh 10% FBS-DMEM supplemented with 5 μM ascorbic acid, 100 U/mlpenicillin, 100 ug/ml streptomycin, 50 ng/ml macrophage colonystimulating factor (M-CSF), 50 ng/ml of receptor activator of NF-kB(RANK) ligand, 200 μM hydrocortisone-21-hemisuccinate and 10 mMbeta-glycerophosphate every fourth day until the tissue construct washarvested.

Example 3 Imaging of Bone Constructs

The method of Example 2 was followed, with the following differences:primary osteoblasts and osteoclast precursors were mixed together atabout a 2:1 ratio of osteoblasts to osteoclast precursors, with thetotal number of cells being about 9 million cells; the mixture of cellswas then horizontally rotated at 2 rpm for 48 hrs, and then at 14 rpmfor 5 days; and mineralization proceeded at 16 rpm for 21 days. Theresulting mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs are pictured inFIG. 2A (at 14 days of mineralization) and FIG. 2B (at 21 days ofmineralization). The scale bar in each figure is 1 cm.

Example 4 Bone Constructs with Labeled Osteoclasts

The method of Example 2 was followed, with the following differences:osteoclast precursors were labeled with the fluorescent CellTracker-Redprobe (Invitrogen, Inc.) prior to mixing with osteoblasts; primaryosteoblasts and labeled osteoclast precursors were mixed together atabout a 2:1 ratio of osteoblasts to osteoclast precursors, with thetotal number of cells being about 3 million cells; the mixture of cellswas then horizontally rotated at 2 rpm for 24 hrs, and then at 14 rpmfor 5 days; and mineralization proceeded at 16 rpm for 14 days. FIG. 3Ashows a fluorescence confocal microscopy image of an optical sectionthrough some of the resulting mineralized three-dimensional boneconstructs. The results show that osteoclast precursor cells (observableas white spots in FIG. 3A) have spatially arranged themselves as anouter layer of the mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs withthe putative osteoblast cells being embedded in the crystalline matrixof the central region of the constructs. FIG. 3B shows the sameconstructs viewed in incident laser light (i.e. non-fluorescentillumination) to illustrate the shape of the constructs. The scale barin each of FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B is 200 μm.

Example 5 Optic Sectioning of a Bone Construct with Labeled Osteoclasts

The method of Example 2 was followed, with the following differences:osteoclast precursors were labeled with the fluorescentCellTracker-Green probe (Invitrogen, Inc.) prior to mixing withosteoblasts; primary osteoblasts and labeled osteoclast precursors weremixed together at about a 2:1 ratio of osteoblasts to osteoclastprecursors, with the total number of cells being about 6 million cells;the mixture of cells was then horizontally rotated at 2 rpm for 48 hrs,and then at 14 rpm for 5 days; and mineralization proceeded at 16 rpmfor 21 days. Three dimensional reconstruction of a resulting large boneconstruct was performed using Z series confocal imaging. Panels A-I inFIG. 4 are the individual images used by the confocal imaging softwareto build the optical reconstruction of the bone construct in threedimensions, each image representing a sequential view over the surfaceof the construct (white spots indicate individual cells). FIG. 4indicates that the arrangement of osteoclasts to the outer layer of theconstruct remains a feature of the construct even after extended cultureperiods (i.e. a total of four weeks in the HARV vessel, including threeweeks grown in mineralization conditions). Labeled osteoclasts areapparent in an outer layer covering the surface of the construct.

Example 6 Staining of Bone Constructs with Alizarin Red S, von Kossa,and Harris Hematoxylin Stains

Mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs were prepared as detailedin Example 3. The bone constructs were then fixed using a Bouin'ssolution (a rapid penetrating fixative solution), frozen sectioned, andstained for calcium using the Alizarin red S stain and for phosphatesand carbonates using the von Kossa histochemical stain. FIG. 5A shows a5× magnification image of Alizarin red S staining and FIG. 5B shows a20× magnification image of Alizarin red S staining (which appears as thedark regions of the images). FIG. 5C shows a 5× magnification image ofvon Kossa staining and FIG. 5B shows a 20× magnification image of vonKossa staining (which appears as the dark regions of the images). Theresults demonstrate that the crystalline matrix of the mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs contain mineral elements observed innormal human bone in vivo.

The same sections were also stained for the presence of nucleated cellsusing the Harris Hematoxylin stain. The results are shown in FIG. 6A (5×magnification image) and FIG. 6B (20× magnification image). The darkregions of the image indicate staining. The staining pattern illustratesa large number of cells embedded within the crystalline matrix of thethree dimensional construct. These cell nuclei appear intact with littleor no signs of nuclear fragmentation, a histological indicator of theoccurrence of cell death/apoptosis. Arrows in FIG. 6B point to largenumbers of cells embedded within the crystalline matrix in the threedimensional construct. Cell nuclei appear intact with little or no signsof nuclear fragmentation; such fragmentation would be a histologicalindicator of the occurrence of cell death/apoptosis. Immuno-staining ofthese sections for the presence of osteoblast cell markers, such asalkaline phosphatase, indicated the absence of osteoblast cell markersin the cell type embedded in the crystalline matrix. Thus, it isbelieved that the cells embedded in the crystalline matrix areosteocytes.

Example 7 Detection of Osteocalcein, an Osteoclast DifferentiationMarker, in Bone Constructs Using Immunofluorescence

The method of Example 2 was followed, with the following differences:osteoclast precursors were labeled with the fluorescentCellTracker-Orange probe (Invitrogen, Inc.) prior to mixing withosteoblasts; primary osteoblasts and labeled osteoclast precursors weremixed together at about a 2:1 ratio of osteoblasts to osteoclastprecursors, with the total number of cells being about 6 million cells;the mixture of cells was then horizontally rotated at 2 rpm for 48 hrs,and then at 14 rpm for 5 days; and mineralization proceeded at 16 rpmfor 21 days. The resulting mineralized three-dimensional bone constructswere fixed using a phosphate buffered saline solution (pH 7.2)containing 1% (v/v) freshly generated formaldehyde. The fixed boneconstructs were then immunochemically stained using a monoclonalantibody against osteocalcein (an osteoclast differentiation marker) asthe primary antibody and an Alexa 488-labeled secondary antibody. FIG.7A-7C shows images obtained by simultaneously imaging both markers inone of the bone constructs using confocal microscopy. Specifically, FIG.7A shows osteocalcein staining, FIG. 7B shows CellTracker-Orangestaining, and FIG. 7C shows the same construct illuminated with incidentlaser light. The results indicate that osteocalcein staining andCellTracker-Orange staining (both visible as a white “ring” around theconstruct in FIGS. 7A and 7B) are spatially localized to the same areaof the construct. This indicates that the osteoclast precursor cells haddifferentiated into mature osteoclasts that were spatially localized tothe surface of the construct.

What is claimed is:
 1. A mineralized three-dimensional bone constructcomprising a spheroid of between about 200 μm and about 4 mm in diameterhaving an outer layer surrounding an inner core, wherein said outerlayer comprises osteoclasts, wherein said inner layer comprisesosteoblasts, osteocytes, or both osteoblasts and osteocytes embeddedwithin a crystalline matrix, and wherein said crystalline matrixcomprises calcium, phosphates, and carbonates.
 2. A mineralizedthree-dimensional bone construct produced by the method comprising: (a)introducing osteoclast precursors and osteoblasts into a cylindricalculture vessel that rotates about a central horizontal axis, saidcylindrical culture vessel comprising a matrix-free culture medium; (b)culturing said osteoblasts and said osteoclast precursors in saidcylindrical culture vessel during horizontal rotation at a rateeffective to create low shear conditions and to promote the formation ofaggregates comprising said osteoclast precursors and said osteoblasts;(c) further culturing said aggregates in said cylindrical culture vesselduring horizontal rotation at a rate effective to create low shearconditions, whereby said aggregates grow in size and said osteoclastprecursors differentiate into osteoclasts; and (d) introducing amatrix-free mineralization culture medium into said cylindrical culturevessel and culturing said aggregates during horizontal rotation at arate effective to create low shear conditions, wherein said mineralizedthree-dimensional bone constructs are formed, wherein the mineralizedthree-dimensional bone construct comprises one or more osteocytes. 3.The mineralized three-dimensional bone construct of claim 2 which isapproximately spheroidal.
 4. The mineralized three-dimensional boneconstruct of claim 3 which is between about 200 μm and about 4 mm indiameter.
 5. The mineralized three-dimensional bone construct of claim 3which comprises an outer layer surrounding an inner core, wherein saidouter layer comprises said osteoclasts, and wherein said inner corecomprises a crystalline matrix that stains positively with Alizarin RedS stain and von Kossa stain.
 6. A method of forming a mineralizedthree-dimensional bone comprising: (a) introducing osteoclast precursorsand osteoblasts into a cylindrical culture vessel that rotates about acentral horizontal axis, said cylindrical culture vessel comprising amatrix-free culture medium; (b) culturing said osteoblasts and saidosteoclast precursors in said cylindrical culture vessel duringhorizontal rotation at a rate effective to create low shear conditionsand to promote the formation of aggregates comprising said osteoclastprecursors and said osteoblasts; (c) further culturing said aggregatesin said cylindrical culture vessel during horizontal rotation at a rateeffective to create low shear conditions, whereby said aggregates growin size and said osteoclast precursors differentiate into osteoclasts;and (d) introducing a matrix-free mineralization culture medium intosaid cylindrical culture vessel and culturing said aggregates duringhorizontal rotation at a rate effective to create low shear conditions,wherein said mineralized three-dimensional bone constructs are formed,wherein the mineralized three-dimensional bone construct comprises oneor more osteocytes.